The medieval Islamic world was home to some of the most influential geographers, whose works shaped our understanding of the world. Arab and Persian scholars, drawing from Greek, Roman, and Indian sources, expanded the field of geography through extensive travels, detailed cartographic studies, and innovative theories. Their contributions not only preserved knowledge but also laid the foundation for modern geographical science.
Ibn Hawqal (10th Century A.D.)
- Kitab al-Masalik wa al-Mamalik (The Book of Routes and Realms), also known as Surat al-Ard (The Face of the Earth). This work provides detailed accounts of various regions based on his extensive travels.
Ibn Hawqal was an Arab geographer and traveller known for his detailed observations of different regions. His most famous work provided a comprehensive geographical account of the Islamic world. Based on his extensive travels, he revised and improved earlier maps, adding more accurate details about trade routes, cities, and physical landscapes.
Al-Masudi (c. 896–956 A.D.)
Often called the “Herodotus of the Arabs,” Al-Masudi was a historian and geographer who travelled across the Middle East, Persia, India, and Africa. His major works provided extensive descriptions of different regions, cultures, and climates, linking geography with historical narratives.
- Kitab Muruj al-Dhahab wa Ma’adin al-Jawhar (The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems)
- Kitab al-Tanbih wa al-Ishraf (The Book of Admonition and Revision)
- Kitab Akhbar al-Zaman (The Book of the History of Time)
- Kitab al-Awsat (The Book of the Middle)
Al-Biruni (973–1048 A.D.)
He had a strong command of Sanskrit, which facilitated his studies of Indian culture and science. He translated various Sanskrit works into Arabic, including those of Patanjali. Al-Biruni authored numerous works across different fields, with significant contributions to geography.
- Kitab al-Hind (The Book of India)
- Al-Qanun al-Mas’udi (The Mas’udi Canon)
- Al-Athar al-Baqiya ‘an al-Qurun al-Khaliya (Vestiges of the Past)
- Tarikh al-Hind (History of India)
- Kitab al-Jamahir fi Ma’rifat al-Jawahir (The Book of Precious Stones)
- Kitab al-Saydana (The Book of Pharmacology)
Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by Al-Biruni to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth 
An illustration from al-Biruni’s astronomical works, explains the different phases of the Moon, with respect to the position of the Sun. 
The statue of Al-Biruni in United Nations Office in Vienna
Al-Idrisi (1100–1165 A.D.)
- Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaq (The Pleasure of Him Who Longs to Cross the Horizons), commonly known as the Tabula Rogeriana. This comprehensive geographical text was commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily.
One of the most renowned Arab geographers, Al-Idrisi created the famous Tabula Rogeriana, a world map commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily. His work included detailed descriptions of different regions, climate zones, and cultures and remained an authoritative source for centuries.
Ibn Battuta (1304–1369 A.D.)
- Al-Rihla (The Journey), a detailed account of his extensive travels across Africa, the Middle East, India, Southeast Asia, and China.
Ibn Battuta was one of the greatest travellers in history, covering over 75,000 miles across Africa, the Middle East, India, China, and Europe. His book provides a rich account of the places he visited, offering insights into the geography, culture, and politics of the medieval world.
Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 A.D.)
- Al-Muqaddimah (The Introduction), a seminal work that lays the foundation for the philosophy of history and sociology.
Ibn Khaldun was a renowned Arab historian, philosopher, and sociologist, but his contributions to geography were also significant. His work discussed the relationship between geography and human civilization, emphasizing how climate and environment influence societies.
He is best known for his work Muqaddimah (Prolegomena), which is considered one of the most influential books in history, particularly in the fields of history, sociology, and economics. In this work, Ibn Khaldun introduced groundbreaking ideas about the rise and fall of civilizations, the role of social cohesion (asabiyyah) in state-building, and the cyclical nature of history.
Ibn Khaldun is regarded as one of the most prominent scholars and historians in the Muslim and Arab worlds. His works have been compared to those of several influential European thinkers, such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Giambattista Vico, David Hume, G. W. F. Hegel, Karl Marx, Auguste Comte, as well as economists like David Ricardo and Adam Smith. This comparison suggests that while Ibn Khaldun’s ideas predate these Western philosophers, his work shared themes that later appeared in European thought, though there was no direct influence between them.